The rise of the Bitcoin protocol has brought new vitality to the Bitcoin ecosystem, attracting more attention and sparking discussions about the Pandora’s Box of the Bitcoin ecosystem. Among the various technological developments in the Bitcoin ecosystem, the construction of the Bitcoin Layer 2 is of utmost importance. In this regard, I have learned from well-known articles on the internet, exchanged ideas with friends, and summarized the basic knowledge of the Bitcoin Layer 2 based on our team’s exploration and experience in Web3 product design and development. This approach facilitates summarization and learning, and I hope to inspire more people to improve related ideas and contribute to the development of this field.
The world of blockchain starts with Bitcoin and ends with the Bitcoin ecosystem (as summarized by Dasha Lao, a partner at Shuidi Capital, and I personally agree).
Ethereum is also an exploration of Bitcoin as a sidechain technology.
In this article, we will use the terms “Layer 2 construction” or “Layer 2 network construction.” Generally, the term “Layer 2 network construction” is relatively narrow, while “Layer 2 construction” is a broader concept. However, to adapt to the commonly discussed “Layer 1 network” and “Layer 2 network,” we will also use the concept of “Layer 2 network construction.” In this article, these two terms refer to the same concept.
1. Common Missions of Layer 2
To understand the basic problems that need to be solved in the construction of the Bitcoin Layer 2, we need to start by understanding the fundamental characteristics of blockchain systems.
1.1 Fundamental Characteristics and Needs of Blockchain
In this article, we will use a concept proposed by Vitalik: blockchain is a “world computer.” Understanding the various characteristics of blockchain from this perspective will be clearer. In the following chapters, we will also analyze the development possibilities of this “world computer” based on the Von Neumann architecture in computer science.
Let’s summarize some fundamental characteristics:
– Public and Transparent: This is the characteristic of the data storage and execution instructions of the blockchain “world computer.” It is also the internal demand characteristic of the “world computer” that requires the participation of distributed nodes worldwide. This characteristic satisfies the users’ right to know about data and is the result of the internal collaboration requirements of the “world computer” and the external demands of users. The privacy characteristic mentioned later satisfies the external demands of users without compromising the collaboration requirements of the “world computer” itself.
– Decentralized: This characteristic is the architectural characteristic of the “world computer.” The degree of decentralization and fault tolerance are supported theoretically by the Byzantine fault-tolerant theory (the scenario where co-authors may be dishonest, i.e., not complying with the protocol). Systems that are not Byzantine fault-tolerant are not considered blockchain systems, and we will see two cases of non-blockchain systems in the Layer 2 construction later. The degree of decentralization is an important indicator of blockchain security and the foundation of certain characteristics.
– Security: Security is composed of the internal demands of the “world computer” for its normal operation and the external demands of users. Security is ensured at the micro-level by cryptographic techniques and at the macro-level by the decentralized architecture, ensuring the security of the “world computer” against forgery of micro-level data or destruction of macro-level architecture.
– Computing Power: The “world computer” of the blockchain has a main function of computing power. This indicator is generally assessed by whether it is Turing complete. Some chains intentionally design themselves as Turing incomplete to maintain their main characteristics. For example, in the Bitcoin network, Satoshi Nakamoto not only made its code instructions Turing incomplete but also intentionally deleted some instruction sets during development to maintain stability and security. All Turing complete technologies are designed to expand the computing power of the blockchain. From the perspective of layered design, simple systems are more suitable for the underlying layer.
– Performance: Under the same computing power, performance is another main capability of the blockchain “world computer” and is generally measured by TPS, the number of transactions processed per second.
– Storage: If the blockchain is described as a “world computer,” it must have a storage function, which is the ability to record data. Currently, basic storage is done in blocks, and more professional off-chain on-chain storage is still under development.
– Privacy: Privacy is a specific requirement within the “world computer,” which requires maintaining the scope of authority of data producers and users during computation and storage (we also include resistance to censorship in the privacy part). This is mainly driven by the external demands of users.
There is also a comprehensive indicator of scalability, which generally refers to the scalability of the entire architecture. This characteristic affects most of the fundamental characteristics and is an important indicator at the architectural level. There are also some other capabilities, such as connectivity or capabilities for specific scenarios, which will not be discussed in detail here, but will be analyzed in detail when encountering these special scenarios.
Among these fundamental characteristics of blockchain, most of them are constrained by the impossible triangle. For example, the DSS conjecture, which refers to decentralization (D), security (S), and scalability (S). The relationship is shown in the following figure:
In distributed systems, a similar impossible triangle is the CAP theorem. CAP refers to consistency, availability, and partition tolerance, which cannot be achieved simultaneously in a distributed system. Blockchain systems have Byzantine fault-tolerant distributed systems, so the CAP theorem also applies.
The CAP theorem is shown in the following figure:
1.2 The Role of Layer 2 Construction
What roles does Layer 2 construction fulfill? What functions does it provide? Layer 2 construction is meant to extend the capabilities of Layer 1 systems and accomplish tasks that are not suitable for Layer 1.
From the summary of blockchain characteristics above, we can draw a preliminary conclusion that Layer 2 construction must extend these basic capabilities: public transparency, decentralization, security, computing power, performance (throughput), storage, privacy, etc. In addition to these technological aspects of basic capabilities, there is also an important economic issue to be addressed, which is cost reduction. The comprehensive cost of executing transactions on Layer 1 networks is generally high, and Layer 2 networks are needed to reduce these costs.
In summary, the goals of Layer 2 construction are to increase capacity, reduce costs, and customize features. Regarding customized features, they are not yet clearly defined or often hidden within the first two features, which can be puzzling. We can understand it as adjusting the implementation degree of various features on Layer 2 for different applications, depending on the extent to which the features of Layer 1 networks are needed.
In Layer 2 construction, the basic capabilities of the blockchain will be compromised and some features will be lowered or even discarded in exchange for significant improvements in certain features. For example, in order to improve performance, some Layer 2 solutions may reduce decentralization and security. Lightning Network, for example, changes the system’s structure and settlement methods to increase throughput. Some Layer 2 solutions enhance certain features without compromising the basic characteristics. For example, the RGB protocol significantly enhances privacy and resistance to censorship but increases the difficulty of technical implementation. In the following cases, we will see Layer 2 construction that simultaneously reduces or modifies several features.
Reducing costs should be a basic requirement for all Layer 2 construction. (Have there been any Layer 2 constructions that do not reduce costs? I have not seen any.)
1.3 Why Implement Layered Design?
Layered design is a method and methodology for humans to handle complex systems. By dividing the system into multiple hierarchical structures and defining the relationships and functions between layers, modularization, maintainability, and scalability of the system can be achieved, thereby improving the design efficiency and reliability of the system.
For a widely-used and large protocol system, using layering has obvious advantages. It makes it easier for people to understand, divide work for implementation, and improve through modular improvements. For example, the ISO/OSI seven-layer model design in computer networks can be merged into a four-layer protocol in specific implementations, such as the specific network protocol TCP/IP. The models are shown in the following figure:
Benefits of protocol layering include:
1. Independence between layers: Each layer does not need to know how the next layer is implemented; it only needs to know the services provided by the layer through inter-layer interfaces. This reduces the complexity of the overall problem. In other words, how the work of the upper layer is carried out does not affect the work of the lower layer. Therefore, when designing the work of each layer, as long as the interface remains unchanged, the work within the layer can be adjusted freely.
2. Good flexibility: When any layer changes, as long as the inter-layer interface relationship remains unchanged, it will not affect the layers above or below it. Technological innovations or problems in one layer will not affect the work of other layers, and only the specific problems of this layer need to be considered when troubleshooting.
3. Separability in structure: Each layer can use the most suitable technology to implement it. Technological developments are often asymmetrical, and hierarchical division effectively avoids the “bucket effect” by not affecting the overall work efficiency due to the incomplete development of a certain technology.
4. Easy to implement and maintain: This structure makes it easy to implement and debug a large and complex system because the entire system has been decomposed into relatively independent subsystems. During debugging and maintenance, each layer can be debugged separately, avoiding situations where problems cannot be found or solved.
5. Promotes standardization work: Because each layer’s functions and services provided are accurately described, standardization has the convenience of replacing a layer at will, which is very convenient for use and research.
The idea of layered modular design is a common method used in the technical field to handle complex systems that require collaboration among multiple people and continuous improvement. It has been proven effective through practice.
2. Several Approaches to Bitcoin Layer 2 Construction
Using Bitcoin’s Layer 2 construction as a case study, we will analyze related issues. There are three notable routes for Bitcoin’s Layer 2 construction:
(1) One is the chain-based expansion route, which is similar to the Layer 2 of the EVM and is a blockchain structure.
(2) Another is the distributed route, represented by the Lightning Network, which is a distributed structure.
(3) There is also a route based on a centralized system, represented by centralized indexes, which is a centralized structure.
The first two methods have distinct characteristics, and some are already in use.Plasma Technology: Plasma technology is an extension solution based on a two-layer network. By fragmenting and processing transaction data of the first-layer network, and then verifying and processing it through the second-layer network, it can achieve higher throughput and scalability.
Common second-layer structures include blockchain-like structures, distributed system structures, and centralized system structures. The common connection technologies mentioned above can only be used in one type of structure due to the different structures of the second layer, and will not be discussed in depth here.
With the maturity of the second-layer construction, there are more specific technical or case-related issues, which may not only be related to the technical level, but also to the economic level.
What are the reference indicators for examining the quality of the connection technology between the first layer and the second layer? Some indicators that can be roughly observed are:
Can the first layer verify transactions of the second layer?
Can the assets of the first layer escape smoothly when the second layer crashes?
Will the connection technology reduce certain characteristics of the system?
…
The content of the connection technology between the first layer and the second layer should be better summarized and improved when there are more cases of second-layer construction. Currently, these connection technologies are mostly completed by the builders of the second layer. It is difficult to say whether there will be independent products similar to cross-chain bridges in the future.
This section is more about raising questions and allowing us as participants and builders to have more thinking.
3.2. Viewing the Development of Blockchain from the Perspective of von Neumann Architecture
In the previous section, we have used Vitalik’s concept: blockchain is a “world computer.” Since it can be called a computer, this “world computer” can be compared and analyzed with the von Neumann architecture of traditional computers.
The five major components of a von Neumann computer are the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, memory, input device, and output device. In the “world computer” system of blockchain, there are also similar components, and the connection part of these five major components should be emphasized, as it has a greater impact in a distributed system.
The development trend of the “world computer” is similar to that of traditional computers. If we compare it to the development of traditional computers, the blockchain system is still in a stage similar to the 286, expanding its processing capacity, expanding its storage capacity, having simple peripherals, and being able to do limited things.
Here are some comparisons between the development of traditional computers and the “world computer”:
(1) The expansion of the CPU (arithmetic logic unit and control unit) is similar to the expansion of computing power and throughput of the first layer and second layer.
(2) The expansion of memory will gradually shift from the competition chain’s space to the use of true blockchain storage. The current on-chain storage space of the first layer and second layer is similar to the registers, level-1 cache, and level-2 cache of traditional computers. In the future, there will be professional blockchain storage methods similar to memory, hard disk, and external storage. The current method of writing data will also undergo significant changes in the future.
(3) Input and output devices in the blockchain system are the oracles. These input and output devices have not been fully reflected in the second-layer construction, but there will be more demands in upper-layer applications.
(4) Some special chains and functions in the blockchain are similar to GPUs, specialized device cards, and special peripherals in traditional computers.
(5) Blockchain applications and higher-level applications are similar to the early stage of traditional computers, where there was no distinction between operating systems and application software, and they are gradually evolving and separating functions.
(6) Currently, many blockchain applications are financial applications, similar to early traditional computers, which were mostly used for scientific research and military applications. With development, they gradually moved towards enterprises, households, and individuals. Blockchain applications will also have similar development trends, evolving from early financial applications to more extensive applications.
From the perspective of second-layer construction, there are still many topics to discuss regarding the comparison between traditional computers and the “world computer” of blockchain, but they will not be elaborated in this article.
4. Current Status of Bitcoin’s Layer 2 Construction
4.1. Running Bitcoin Layer 2 Projects
In this article, we mainly introduce the Bitcoin layer 2 projects that have been successfully implemented. We refer to some research reports and industry news. These layer 2 constructions have been running for a certain period, with most of them starting from 2015-2019. If there are any new projects with unique features, they will also be introduced. We will see that these cases are mostly based on chain-based layer 2 construction, and the only distributed system construction based on channels is the Lightning Network. If we include Ethereum’s layer 2 construction, Raiden Network is also a channel-based design case, but its development does not seem to be successful and will not be discussed in this article. Ethereum’s Plasma technology is a channel-based subchain design solution, which seems to be a combination of chain and channels. Personally, I believe its main feature is a chain-based layer 2 design, which will not be discussed in detail here.
1. Lightning Network (Distributed Layer 2 Construction)
Lightning Network is a second-layer solution built on the Bitcoin blockchain, aiming to address the scalability and low transaction speed issues of Bitcoin. Lightning Network was first proposed in 2015 and fully implemented in 2018.
The main features of the Lightning Network are fast, low-cost, and scalable. It achieves this by establishing a series of payment channels, allowing Bitcoin transactions to be conducted within the channels without the need for direct recording on the blockchain. This greatly reduces transaction confirmation time and transaction fees, and supports a large number of parallel transactions. The security and reliability of Lightning Network transactions rely on the RMSC protocol, and HTLC solves the issue of routability and scalability. Its architecture provides scalability and has a very high performance.
Since its launch, Lightning Network has gained widespread attention and adoption. More and more Bitcoin users, exchanges, and merchants are using Lightning Network for fast cross-chain transactions and real-time payments. In addition, developers are continuously improving the performance and user experience of Lightning Network, providing more features and scalability.
Although Lightning Network provides significant improvements in scalability and transaction speed, it still faces some technical and adoption challenges. For example, the stability of the network, routing algorithms, and user interfaces need continuous improvement. However, over time and with technological advancements, Lightning Network is expected to become an important payment solution for Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, providing users with faster and lower-cost transaction experiences.
2. Liquid (Chain-based Layer 2 Construction)
Liquid is a sidechain solution launched by Blockstream in 2015. As the first sidechain of Bitcoin, Liquid aims to provide a faster, more secure, and more private transaction solution to meet the needs of financial institutions and exchanges.
One of the main features of Liquid is its fast transaction confirmation time. Compared to Bitcoin’s confirmation time of about 10 minutes, Liquid’s transaction confirmation time is only 2 minutes. This allows users to conduct transactions more quickly and complete fund transfers promptly when needed. Another important feature is the transaction privacy of Liquid. Liquid adopts Confidential Transactions technology, which hides the transaction amount, and only the transaction participants can view the specific amount. This helps protect the privacy of transaction participants.
Liquid also has higher transaction throughput. Through the use of Federated Peg technology, Liquid can support a large number of parallel transactions and anchor them to the Bitcoin network, achieving interoperability with Bitcoin. This allows Liquid to handle more transaction volume and improve the overall system throughput.
Since its launch, Liquid has been growing in the cryptocurrency industry. More and more exchanges, financial institutions, and companies are adopting Liquid as their transaction and fund settlement solution. At the same time, Blockstream continues to introduce new features and improvements to further enhance the performance and security of Liquid.
In summary, Liquid is a Bitcoin sidechain solution launched by Blockstream, aiming to provide fast, private, and high-throughput transactions. It meets the needs of professional users by shortening transaction confirmation time, providing transaction privacy, and increasing transaction throughput. Over time, Liquid has gained wide application and development in the cryptocurrency industry.
3. Rootstock (RSK) (Chain-based Layer 2 Construction)
Rootstock (RSK) is a smart contract platform built on the Bitcoin blockchain, aiming to provide Ethereum-like functionality to the Bitcoin ecosystem. Rootstock was first proposed in 2015 and officially launched in 2018.
The main features of Rootstock are its bi-directional pegging with Bitcoin and smart contract functionality. Through bi-directional pegging with Bitcoin, Rootstock is able to use Bitcoin as its primary asset, ensuring security and stability. At the same time, Rootstock supports smart contract functionality, allowing developers to build and execute smart contracts with automation features on its platform.
Since its launch, Rootstock has been gradually recognized and adopted in the Bitcoin ecosystem. It provides Bitcoin users and developers with more features and flexibility, enabling Bitcoin to support a wider range of applications such as decentralized finance (DeFi), digital asset issuance, and supply chain management.
However, compared to other smart contract platforms, Rootstock’s development has been relatively slow. It still needs more efforts in expanding its user and developer community. Despite this, the future development prospects of Rootstock are still considered positive, and it has the potential to become one of the important smart contract platforms in the Bitcoin ecosystem.
4. RGB (Distributed + Turing-complete Layer 2 Construction)
The story of RGB can be traced back to 2016 when Giacomo Zucco wanted to develop a better colored coin using Peter Todd’s concepts of client-side validation and single-use seals and bring these tokens to the Lightning Network (hence the name “RGB”). It is an open protocol built on the Bitcoin blockchain, aiming to provide richer functionality for the creation, trading, and management of digital assets. RGB is a scalable and confidential Bitcoin and Lightning Network smart contract system developed by the LNP/BP Standard Association. It adopts the concepts of private and co-ownership and is a Turing-complete, trustless distributed computing form that does not require the introduction of non-blockchain off-chain decentralized protocols.
The purpose of RGB’s design is to run scalable, robust, and confidential smart contracts on UTXO blockchains like Bitcoin to achieve all possibilities. With RGB, developers can execute complex multi-category smart contracts such as token issuance, NFT minting, DeFi, DAO, and more.
The RGB protocol is based on the concepts of client-side validation and single-use seals, enabling client-side state validation and smart contract systems to run on the second and third layers of the Bitcoin ecosystem (off-chain).HeartMind Computing Platform. Stacks was first introduced in 2013 and conducted its initial coin offering (ICO) in 2017. Its main feature is to provide decentralized identity verification, storage, and smart contract functionality.
The core feature of Stacks is to support the development and execution of decentralized applications (dApps) by leveraging the security and stability of Bitcoin. It adopts a consensus mechanism called “Stacking” which involves users who hold STX tokens locking a certain amount of tokens and participating in network validation. This mechanism provides incentives for users and increases network security.
In terms of development, Stacks has become one of the important platforms in the field of decentralized applications. It has attracted a group of developers and projects to join, building numerous decentralized applications and providing rich tools and development documentation. Stacks also collaborates with other blockchain projects to expand its ecosystem and application scenarios.
6. Other Bitcoin Layer 2 Projects
With the popularity of Bitcoin, many new projects have emerged. Among them, there are many projects initiated by Chinese contributors, such as B2 Network, BEVM, Dovi, Map Protocol, Merlin, Bison, etc., each with its own characteristics.
B2 Network was established in 2022 and is a Bitcoin layer 2 network developed based on ZK-Rollup. It is compatible with EVM and enables seamless deployment of DApps in the EVM ecosystem. It is a typical case of transferring Ethereum’s layer 2 technology to the Bitcoin ecosystem.
The original team of BEVM was established in 2017 and has explored various Bitcoin extension applications. The concept of BEVM was proposed in 2023, which is a decentralized Bitcoin layer 2 compatible with EVM. BEVM is based on the Taproot upgrade, which brings Schnorr signature algorithm and other technologies, allowing BTC to be cross-chain from the Bitcoin mainnet to layer 2 in a decentralized manner. As BEVM is compatible with EVM, all DApps running in the Ethereum ecosystem can run on BTC Layer 2 and use BTC as gas. On November 29, 2023, BEVM released its whitepaper.
Dovi was established in 2023 and is a Bitcoin layer 2 compatible with EVM smart contracts. In November 2023, Dovi officially released its whitepaper. The whitepaper introduces Dovi’s integration of Schnorr signatures and MAST structure to improve transaction privacy, optimize data size and verification process. It also implements a flexible framework for issuing various types of assets other than Bitcoin and enables cross-chain asset transfers.
The team behind Map Protocol was established relatively early and mainly focused on cross-chain protocols, which connect layer 1 and layer 2. With the popularity of the Bitcoin ecosystem, they quickly started building layer 2 infrastructure based on the chain. They can cross-chain current inscription assets and reduce transaction costs, which attracts some projects and applications.
From the official website of Merlin Chain, it is easy to see its bridge attribute, which allows assets on BTC to be transferred to layer 2 networks to reduce transaction costs. It is a typical representative that solves pain points first. From the official website introduction and some research reports, Merlin is a Bitcoin layer 2 solution that integrates ZK-Rollup network, decentralized oracle, and on-chain BTC anti-fraud module. The project is launched by Bitmap Tech, a team with distinctive characteristics. Their Bitmap.game and BRC-420 “Blue Box” Ordinals assets have gained good reputation.
Bison was established in 2023 and is a Bitcoin-native zk-rollup that improves transaction speed and implements advanced features on native Bitcoin. Developers can use zk-rollup to build innovative DeFi solutions such as trading platforms, lending services, and automated market makers. From their official website, Bridge is also an important feature. It allows Bitcoin assets to be cross-chain to enable upper-layer asset applications, which is the entry point for many projects.
From these relatively new projects, such as B2 Network, BEVM, Dovi, Map Protocol, Merlin, and Bison, they have quickly achieved the goal of reducing transaction costs and meeting the needs of Bitcoin layer 1 asset trading. They all involve asset cross-chain. Teams with existing cross-chain protocols can move faster, and teams with layer 2 development experience have advantages in upper-layer applications. These newer projects are all based on chain layer 2 development, leveraging existing technological accumulation and short-term explosive advantages. The homogeneity of these projects is quite significant, and their future development remains to be observed. How will they compete with distributed layer 2 service providers? Many observations are still needed. Based on the experience of layer 2 projects on Ethereum, after the hype and token issuance, many projects tend to stagnate. Will Bitcoin’s layer 2 follow the same pattern?
From the currently running Bitcoin layer 2 projects, we can see that well-established Bitcoin layer 2 projects, especially those that have been in development for many years and have accumulated certain advantages, can they rejuvenate and flourish in the current Bitcoin frenzy? There is a great deal of uncertainty.
There are two criteria for measurement: first, as mentioned earlier, the Bitcoin layer 2 network with a higher total value locked (TVL) will prevail. The other criterion is the structure of the layer 2. Chain-based layer 2 development, due to its scalability, can accommodate more competitors, while distributed layer 2 development can only accommodate fewer competitors.
Existing layer 2 projects still need to leverage their accumulated advantages and establish new advantages through new technologies to attract more applications to their platforms in order to have a chance to rejuvenate and gain more market share. If they cannot attract more applications, these old projects are likely to sink or transform. In fact, these projects can also collaborate or merge with projects that have no technical accumulation but have established community consensus to achieve greater development.
Furthermore, if these old projects have an advantage in distributed layer 2 technology accumulation, they can fully engage in distributed layer 2 development and provide guidance for upper-layer applications, which would be more effective.
New entrants to Bitcoin layer 2 development projects generally do not have many accumulated advantages. However, this gives them the advantage of being able to study the latest technologies and address lightweight and attractive needs first, attracting a certain number of applications to their platforms. It is best if they already have layer 2 development experience in the Ethereum or other ecosystems, as they are more suitable for quickly entering Bitcoin’s layer 2 development. These projects may consider choosing chain-based layer 2 development, as it is faster and more advantageous.
Teams with no experience or advantages can refer to the third scenario and determine if they can screen users and accumulate funds through community consensus.
For projects that have no technical or community accumulation but want to enter Bitcoin layer 2, I used to have little understanding and often regarded them as CX projects. However, with the phenomenon of inscription, communities that have formed a large consensus, such as sats, ordi, rats, not only have many members but also have accumulated a certain amount of funds. These projects can start a new layer 2 development from scratch, integrate upper-layer applications into the community through the power of the community, and possibly develop their own layer 2. This layer 2 would most likely be based on chain development, as it is simple, fast, and can integrate mature product providers into the community and share revenue. This could form a small ecosystem. Such projects place higher demands on community building, foundation management, and decision-making mechanisms.
4. Development of Upper-Layer Applications
With the rapid development of Bitcoin layer 2, the dormant massive funds on BTC are being awakened again. Due to the attention it receives, it will attract more new users to enter the Web3.0 field. Coupled with the rapid development of Bitcoin layer 2 technology, it will lay a solid foundation for mass adoption. Upper-layer applications will gradually introduce applications that require high performance, high traffic, and frequent interactions, such as GameFi and SocialFi. There will be no downtime or poor service experience in chain-based applications. The development of Bitcoin layer 2 will provide many opportunities and a solid infrastructure for upper-layer applications. Once mature, it will provide more opportunities for non-native Web3 teams.
In any case, the era of Web3.0 has just begun and is still in its early stages. It requires a lot of exploration and construction, and many countries and regions have not fully opened up to many new things in Web3.0. Web3.0 requires extensive construction and will provide more opportunities for project teams. Teams that constantly perceive new developments and technologies, make adjustments, and actively participate in building Web3.0 will eventually reap rewards in a certain stage and field.
Tags:
Vitalik
Ethereum
Wu Shuo Blockchain Real
Bitcoin
Inscription
Source link:
https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/4wUFL4vGZiIFnNxYdDufAg
Note: The translation is the author’s opinion and does not constitute investment advice.
Original article link:
https://www.bitpush.news/articles/6683495
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